The Alps have been studied in great detail. Since the middle of the last century, scientists different countries studied them deeply and comprehensively. Using the example of the Alps, the structural features of the Cenozoic mountain systems Europe and for the first time their canopy (cover) structure was noted, a diagram of Quaternary mountain glaciation was created, and the patterns of mountain climate and vegetation were studied. Many research results obtained in the Alps were then used in the study of other mountain systems. The Alps provided rich material for the development of geography and related sciences. Concepts such as “alpine folding”, “alpine meadows”, and finally even “mountain climbing” have long become not regional, but common nouns.
Switzerland and Austria are located entirely on the territory of the Alpine mountainous country. Its northern parts are within the Federal Republic of Germany, its western parts are within France, and its southern parts are within Italy. The eastern spurs of the Alps extend into the territory of Hungary, the southeastern ridges into Slovenia. Sometimes they talk about the Swiss, French, Italian Alps, etc. However, this division by nationality of one or another part of the Alps does not always correspond to their natural differences.
Geological structure and relief
The geological structure, orography and geomorphological features of the region are very diverse. The Alps proper begin off the coast Mediterranean Sea system of the Maritime Alps bordering the Apennines. Then they stretch along the border of France in the meridional direction in the form of the Cottian and Graian Alps, which are composed of crystalline rocks and reach great heights. The most notable massifs are Pelle Vu (4102 m), Gran Paradiso (4061 m) and the highest five-domed Mont Blanc (4807 m), located on the border between France, Italy and Switzerland. Toward the Padan Lowland, this part of the Alps drops off steeply, without foothills, and therefore looks especially grandiose from the east. From the west, a strip of high crystalline massifs is bordered by a system of mid-altitude mountain ranges composed of limestone. Such ridges are usually called the Pre-Alps.
From the Mont Blanc massif the Alps turn sharply to the east, reaching the limit of average height in Switzerland. Here two parallel rows of powerful ridges, composed of crystalline rocks and limestones, can be traced. The Bernese and Pennine Alps, separated by the longitudinal valley of the upper Rhone, are especially majestic. In this part of the mountains rise the glacier-covered massifs of the Jungfrau (more than 4000 m), the Matterhorn (4477 m) and the second highest massif of the Alps - Monte Rosa (4634 m). Somewhat lower are the parallel ridges of the Lepontine and Glarn Alps, between which lies the valley of the upper Rhine. The Rhone and Rhine valleys are separated by the powerful Gotthard massif, which is a mountain junction and watershed of the Swiss Alps. From the north and south, a strip of high mountain ranges is accompanied by limestone and flysch Pre-Alps (Swiss in the north and Lombard in the south).In the middle part of the Alps, they are crossed by a deep tectonic valley that runs from Lake Constance to Lake Como. This is an important orographic and geographical boundary, dividing the Alps into Western and Eastern. The Eastern Alps are wider and lower than the Western Alps, and their geological structure is also somewhat different. In the extreme east, the ridges of the Alps fan out, approaching the Danube in the north, and reaching the northwest of the Balkan Peninsula in the south. The highest is the axial zone of the ridges of the Eastern Alps, composed of crystalline rocks. But nowhere in the east do the Alps reach such heights as in the west. Only the Bernina Massif in Italy slightly exceeds 4000 m, while the remaining peaks are much lower. The Ötztal Alps and the Hohe Tauern in Austria reach 3500-3700 m, and in the extreme east the height of the mountains rarely exceeds 2000 m. To the north and south of the central crystalline zone stretch the lower ridges of the Pre-Alps, composed of limestone, dolomite and flysch.
The Alpine mountain system, despite its height and considerable width, does not pose a serious obstacle to climbing. This is explained by the large tectonic and erosional dissection of the mountains, the abundance of convenient passages and passes. Since ancient times, the most important routes connecting the countries of Central Europe with the Mediterranean passed through the Alps. Currently, numerous railways and highways with busy traffic are laid through the Alps. The most important are the Frejus passes at an altitude of more than 2500 m, through which the road from Turin to Paris passes, and the Great Saint Bernard at an altitude of more than 2400 m between Mont Blanc and the Pennine Alps, connecting Switzerland with Italy. The Simplon and Saint Gotthard passes are also of great importance. The latter gained fame thanks to Suvorov’s unprecedented crossing of the Alps in 1799. In the Eastern Alps, the low (1371 m) Brenner Pass is most convenient. The first Alpine railway, built in 1867, passed through it. In the second half of the 19th century. Railways crossed almost all the most important Alpine passes. During the construction of these roads, it was necessary to build a large number of tunnels, as a result of which many features were identified geological structure Alps Currently, a tunnel has been built under Mont Blanc on the highway connecting France with Italy. The Alps arose as a result of the collision of the continental plates of Eurasia and Africa at the site of the closed part of Tethys. The result was extensive overturned nappe folds that included fragments of the oceanic crust that made up the ridges of the Alpine mountain system. A major role in the creation of the very diverse relief of the Alps, along with folding in the Mesozoic and Paleogene, was played by powerful vertical movements at the end of the Neogene - the beginning of the Quaternary period, and then by strong erosion activity and the impact of ancient glaciation, which was especially powerful in the Alps.
The strip of the highest ridges and massifs, composed of crystalline rocks and partly limestone, is distinguished by sharp, jagged lines of ridges with individual peaks eaten away by large cirques, steep, steep slopes devoid of vegetation, hanging deep valleys, and huge tongues of glaciers. The lower parts and marginal ridges of the Pre-Alps are characterized by a medium-altitude type of relief with rounded peaks and soft contours of the slopes. The valleys there are wide and terraced, with lake-like extensions. In the north, at the foot of the Alps, in the triangle between them, the Jura Mountains and the valley of the upper Danube, there is a foothill plateau 400-600 m high, composed of destruction products that were once carried down from the mountain slopes. This clastic material was assembled into surface folds during the final phases of orogenesis. The plateau is covered by thick accumulations of glacial deposits left by Alpine glaciers: terminal moraine ridges, accumulations of bottom moraine and masses of outwash sand. The Alpine foothill plateau is located within Switzerland and the Federal Republic of Germany. Accordingly, its smaller western part is called the Swiss Plateau, and the eastern part is called the Bavarian Plateau.
The Swiss plateau is bordered from the north by the Jurassic Mountains system, which is the leading chain of the Alpine mountain system. Parallel anticlinal ridges with maximum height more than 1700 m, composed of Jurassic limestones, are separated by wide longitudinal valleys filled with flysch. The ridges are crossed by narrow gorges that connect longitudinal valleys and create a lattice erosion network. The slopes and peaks of the Jura ranges are corroded by karst caves, sinkholes and underground rivers. The southern slopes of the Alps are devoid of foothills. In the east are the Pre-Alps, and in the west high crystalline massifs break off to the Padan Lowland, within which the southern outskirts of the Alpine mountain system are immersed. From the beginning of the Cenozoic, on the site of the lowland, there was a gulf of the Adriatic Sea, which was gradually filled with clastic material carried down from the Alps and Apennines; the basin drained towards the end of the Neogene. Most of the Padan Lowland is located below 100 m above sea level. At the foot of the mountains, the relief of the lowland is hilly, the surface is composed of coarse material, terminal moraine deposits and outwash sands. Towards the Po Valley, the surface is covered with a thin layer of alluvial sediments, and the relief becomes flatter. The Po River and many of its lower tributaries flow in natural levees above the surrounding area. When it flows into the Adriatic Sea, the Po forms a large, rapidly growing delta. Sand spits and islands are grouped along the flat lagoonal coast of the lowland. Venice is located in one of the lagoons on numerous islands separated by straits. The straits are streets, so Venice gives the impression of a city rising from the sea. Currently, there is a progressive subsidence of the coast, which threatens to flood a large part of the city.
Minerals
The Alpine mountainous country does not have large reserves mineral raw materials. Minerals are concentrated in the Eastern Alps and are associated with rocks of the central crystalline zone. These are deposits of iron and copper ores and magnesite in Austria. In the basins of the Eastern Alps, sedimentary deposits contain small deposits of brown coal and salt.
Climatic conditions
The Alps, rising in the path of humid western air currents, are a large condenser of moisture. The northern and western marginal ridges receive especially a lot of precipitation, from 1500 to 3000 mm per year, foggy and cloudy weather prevails. Internal ridges, closed valleys and basins receive significantly less moisture (less than 1000 mm). The greatest amount of precipitation falls to an altitude of 1500-2000 m, where the zone of maximum cloudiness is located. Above this zone the weather is drier and clearer. On the slopes of the Alps, high-altitude climatic zonation is clearly expressed, manifested in the transition from the warm temperate and even subtropical climate of the southern foothills to the harsh high-mountain climate of the upper parts of the mountains with frequent frosts, snowstorms, snowfalls and powerful glaciation. There are characteristic differences in the climatic conditions of slopes of different exposures, closed valleys and basins. The latter have a climate with a distinct continental flavor, with winter temperature inversions and less rainfall.
IN winter time A huge amount of snow accumulates in the Alps. In some years there is such a quantity of it that Alpine passes become inaccessible, and traffic on railways and roads stops for some time. In the spring, avalanches occur in many areas, and the avalanche danger increases due to excessive deforestation. The Alps are characterized by local winds, of which the foehns are especially important, which occur during transition seasons due to the difference in pressure on the northern and southern slopes. On the northern slopes, hair dryers appear as dry and warm downward winds, bringing warm and clear weather, accelerating the melting of snow and the onset of spring, and in the fall promoting the ripening of crops. But sometimes the consequences of hair dryers can be catastrophic, as increased snow melting causes floods, landslides and destruction of roads.
The climate of the lowland areas located at the northern and southern foothills of the Alps is influenced to a certain extent by the mountains, which is primarily expressed in increased precipitation. The pre-Alpine plateau and Padan lowland receive from 800 to 1200 mm of precipitation per year. Both of these areas have a temperate climate with some continental features, only the climate of the Padan Plain is warmer and more favorable for agriculture than the climate of the Pre-Alpine Plateau.
Vegetation
The Alps are a forested region. However modern painting their soil and vegetation cover is extremely variegated. This, on the one hand, is the result of natural conditions and the manifestation of altitudinal zonation; on the other hand, it is a consequence of a very deep change natural conditions under human influence. The Bavarian Plateau, less populated than the Swiss, has deciduous and mixed forests interspersed with areas of peat bogs. Significant areas are cultivated. On the Swiss Plateau, with a warmer climate, the natural soil and vegetation cover was dominated by oak and beech forests on brown soils. But the natural landscapes there have hardly been preserved. The plateau is densely populated - almost the entire population of Switzerland is concentrated here. Most of the territory is occupied by grain crops, lush sown meadows and orchards. The most heat-loving crops, such as grapes, are planted along the shores of lakes. The slopes of the Jura Mountains are covered with beech forests. The valleys are inhabited and cultivated, the beautiful meadows on the tops of the ridges serve as summer pastures.
Natural vegetation of the Padan lowland - beech forests on forest brown soils- completely exterminated. Its natural conditions are extremely favorable for agriculture, which is why it has long been inhabited and occupied by fields and vineyards. Laurels, pomegranate and fig trees, and cypresses grow in the gardens and around the villages. Fruit trees grow in the fields among the wheat and corn, and grapes often climb the trunks of elms and mulberries. 2-3 crops are harvested from the fields per year. This leads to severe depletion of the soil, the fertility of which is not restored. Therefore, many lands are gradually becoming unsuitable for further use.
The most complex picture is of the soil and vegetation cover of the Alps themselves, which can serve as a classic example of the altitudinal zonation of mountains in the oceanic sector of the temperate zone. The lower zone of the Alps, up to approximately 1000 m altitude, is very diverse in climate and vegetation cover, its conditions are close to those of the neighboring plains. In the south, Mediterranean influences are felt and subtropical soil and vegetation types can be found. In the west, oak, chestnut and beech forests on brown forest soils rise along the slopes, in the north there are less heat-loving mixed forests on podzolic soils, and from the east the forest-steppe approaches the Alps. This lower belt, which is the most populated and has significantly changed its natural vegetation cover, is called the cultural belt of the Alps.
On high altitude climatic conditions become more monotonous. To an altitude of approximately 1800-2200 m, in a zone of moderate temperature and heavy rainfall, a belt of forests rises on mountain brown soils and podzolic soils. The composition of forests varies with altitude, as well as depending on the location and aspect of the slopes. In humid places, on the shady northern slopes, beech forest is common, often mixed with spruce. The higher, drier and sunny slopes are covered with beautiful spruce and fir forests. In many areas the forests have been cleared. On deforested slopes, soil erosion processes, avalanches and other phenomena that cause great damage intensify. The current upper limit of forests in the Alps, as a result of annual grazing in the subalpine zone, has been reduced by almost 100 m in height and is almost nowhere dependent on natural conditions.
Above the forest zone there is a subalpine zone, where shrub vegetation is combined with lush subalpine meadows and individual oppressed trees. The growth of trees is hampered by the short growing season, strong winds, and sharp fluctuations in temperature and humidity. This belt is most favorable for the growth of herbs, which achieve exceptional lushness and beauty. Thickets of creeping or low-growing shrubs are also common, among which the most common are alpine rhododendron with bright red flowers, juniper and mountain pine with branches pressed to the ground. The Alpine belt proper at altitudes up to 2500-3000 m is characterized by a complete absence of woody vegetation, the predominance of low-growing, sparsely growing perennial grasses with bright flowers, forming so-called “carpets” (mattas), and the spread of swamps. The Alpine belt gradually turns into a belt of eternal snow and ice.
Admit it, do you sometimes have a desire to visit and watch something that is the very best? Especially if it is related to your hobby. So we, being in Nice and planning to drive through the Alps to the north, decided to ride along the highest pass in Europe - Col de la Bonette.
Col de la Bonette is a motorable pass with a height of 2802 meters above sea level, located in France and national park Mercantour. In fact, the height of Col de la Bonette is 2715 meters, but those who have reached that peak have the opportunity to make a small ascent along a circular route to the peak of Mount Cime de la Bonette, and it is there that the height reaches those same 2802 meters . But that's not all. Anyone can climb to the peak itself on foot, where the height will be about 2860 meters. That's what we did.
That day began at a hotel in the town of Jausiers. The Col de la Bonette pass connects this city with another - Saint-Etienne-de-Tinée.
But we didn’t have to drive through the entire pass, but just get to the highest point of the pass, ride around the Cime de la Bonette peak and go back.
If you do not take into account the same circular high route, the Col de la Bonette pass is the fourth highest European pass. Above it are Col de l'Iseran (2770 m), the famous Stelvio Pass (2757 m) and Col Agnel (2744 m).
By the way, in Europe there is a highway higher than all of the above. It is located in Spain, near Granada. The road to the peak of Mount Veleta in the Sierra Nevada mountains rises to a height of as much as 3392 meters. But this road is not a pass, it is just a dead-end asphalt road. Actually, Cime de la Bonette is not a pass either, it’s just a ring around a mountain peak.
The length of the Col de la Bonette pass is 26 kilometers.
The average elevation angle is about 6.4%, with a maximum of just over 10% in one place.
In these places you can meet alpine marmots - Mormoths. Although it is a great success to see them in crowded places. In one place, somewhere in the middle of our ascent, I went out to take a photo and noticed movement below. It was a big and fat marmot! I froze for about five seconds, watching him, and when he started to hide, I came to my senses, took a couple of shots and started calling my wife. But he had already hidden under the stones. In the photo below you can only see his back. Will you find it?
For cycling fans, these places are iconic. The multi-day Tour de France cycling race takes place across the mountain passes of France. This is the highest pass on which the Tour de France has been held, having done so four times: in 1962, 1964, 1993 and 2008. But the rest of the time there are a lot of cyclists in sports equipment.
Somewhere along the way you will definitely pass by such a small lake in which small fish swim peacefully:
On the other side of the road from the lake this is the view:
Also somewhere nearby. I wonder what this house is used for?
And a little higher up there was a whole camp. A sort of wild camping in the mountains:
But now, we first arrived at the very high point pass, and then climbed the Cime de la Bonette. Here, at an altitude of more than 2700 meters, the following views open up:
Fragment of the road around Cime de la Bonette. This group of exotic cars is doing something of a blog tour :) All the cars have the same sponsor stickers:
Who knows what kind of cars these are? We found out that these were Wiesmann cars. They assemble cars individually by hand. The cars are not cheap, and yet there is still a queue of people wanting to buy them. And in the Alps there is their event called "Route des grandes Alpes".
People come here by completely different types of transport. I have already mentioned cyclists, besides them there are many bikers and those traveling in motorhomes. Lovers of exoticism and antiquity can come in this:
Or like this:
We leave the car downstairs and walk upstairs:
High mountain plank checkin. Apparently this is the top of the mountain. By the way, the color of the sky is not a polarizer, I didn’t have a polarizer for my new wide-angle lens,
The Stelvio Pass is located in Italy at an altitude of 2757 meters, it is the highest paved pass in the eastern part of the Alps and the second highest in the Alps, second only to the Col de l'Iseran in France.
We put this road first in the list of the most beautiful roads in the world. Stelvio is located in the Italian Alps of Bormio in the province of Sondrio, near the border with Switzerland. Overhanging the road is the Peak of the Three Languages, it was so named because Italian, German and Romance languages meet here.
The history of this road is quite interesting. The first road was built here back in 1820 under the Austrian Empire to connect Lombardy with the rest of Austria, covering a rise of up to 1871 meters. Since then, the route has remained virtually unchanged. Of the 60 hairpin bends, 48 are located on the north side, presenting a real challenge for motorists. Even the famous racing driver Stirling Moss lost control here and flew off the track in 1990
During the Second World War, this pass was of very important strategic importance, but after the end of the fighting it lost it. Nowadays it is important mainly for sports; numerous bicycle, motorcycle and auto races are held here. Every year at the end of August, the road is closed for the whole day and approximately 8,000 cyclists begin their climb to the top of the Stelvio
The Stelvio was voted the best road to drive in the famous Top Gear show. True, only European roads took part in the selection. After some time, the hosts of the program decided that the Stelvio was still inferior to the Romanian Transfagarasan road
Nowadays, almost every tourist traveling by car from Switzerland to Italy tries to drive along this road and experience the excitement and adrenaline rush 
see also photographs of the nature of the Alps and alpine regions(with geographical and biological captions for photographs) from the section Natural landscapes of the world:
Geographical position. The Alps have been studied in great detail. Since the middle of the last century, scientists from different countries have studied them deeply and comprehensively. Using the example of the Alps, the structural features of the Cenozoic mountain systems of Europe were studied and their canopy (cover) structure was noted for the first time, a diagram of Quaternary mountain glaciation was created, and the patterns of mountain climate and vegetation were studied. Many research results obtained in the Alps were then used in the study of other mountain systems. The Alps provided rich material for the development of geography and related sciences. Concepts such as “alpine folding”, “alpine meadows”, and finally even “mountain climbing” have long become not regional, but common nouns.
Switzerland and Austria are located entirely on the territory of the Alpine mountainous country. Its northern parts are within the Federal Republic of Germany, its western parts are within France, and its southern parts are within Italy. The eastern spurs of the Alps extend into the territory of Hungary, the southeastern ridges into Slovenia. Sometimes they talk about the Swiss, French, Italian Alps, etc. However, this division by nationality of one or another part of the Alps does not always correspond to their natural differences.
Geological structure and relief. The geological structure, orography and geomorphological features of the region are very diverse (Fig. 33).
Rice. 33. Orographic diagram of the Alps
The Alps proper begin off the coast of the Mediterranean Sea with the system of the Maritime Alps bordering the Apennines. Then they stretch along the border of France in the meridional direction in the form Cottian and Graian Alps, which are composed of crystalline rocks and reach great heights. The most notable massifs are Pelle Vu (4102 m), Gran Paradiso (4061 m) and the highest five-domed Mont Blanc (4807 m), located on the border between France, Italy and Switzerland. Toward the Padan Lowland, this part of the Alps drops off steeply, without foothills, and therefore looks especially grandiose from the east. From the west, a strip of high crystalline massifs is bordered by a system of mid-altitude mountain ranges composed of limestone. Such ridges are usually called Pre-alps.
From the Mont Blanc massif the Alps turn sharply to the east, reaching the limit of average height in Switzerland. Here two parallel rows of powerful ridges, composed of crystalline rocks and limestones, can be traced. Especially majestic Bernese and Pennine Alps, separated by the longitudinal valley of the upper Rhone. In this part of the mountains rise the glacier-covered massifs of the Jungfrau (more than 4000 m), the Matterhorn (4477 m) and the second highest massif of the Alps - Monte Rosa (4634 m). Somewhat lower are the parallel ridges of the Lepontine and Glarn Alps, between which lies the valley of the upper Rhine. The Rhone and Rhine valleys are separated by a powerful Gotthard massif, which is a mountain junction and watershed Swiss Alps. From the north and south, a strip of high mountain ranges is accompanied by limestone and flysch Pre-Alps (Swiss in the north and Lombard in the south).
In the middle part The Alps are crossed by a deep tectonic valley that runs from Lake Constance to Lake Como. This is an important orographic and geographical boundary dividing the Alps into Western and Eastern.
Eastern Alps wider and lower than the Western ones, their geological structure is also somewhat different. In the extreme east, the ridges of the Alps fan out, approaching the Danube in the north, and reaching the northwest of the Balkan Peninsula in the south. The highest is the axial zone of the ridges of the Eastern Alps, composed of crystalline rocks. But nowhere in the east do the Alps reach such heights as in the west. Only the Bernina Massif in Italy slightly exceeds 4000 m, while the remaining peaks are much lower. The Ötztal Alps and the Hohe Tauern in Austria reach 3500-3700 m, and in the extreme east the height of the mountains rarely exceeds 2000 m. To the north and south of the central crystalline zone stretch the lower ridges of the Pre-Alps, composed of limestone, dolomite and flysch.
The Alpine mountain system, despite its height and considerable width, does not pose a serious obstacle to climbing. This is explained by the large tectonic and erosional dissection of the mountains, the abundance of convenient passages and passes. Since ancient times, the most important routes connecting the countries of Central Europe with the Mediterranean passed through the Alps. Currently, numerous railways and highways with busy traffic are laid through the Alps. The most important are the Frejus passes at an altitude of more than 2500 m, through which the road from Turin to Paris passes, and the Great Saint Bernard at an altitude of more than 2400 m between Mont Blanc and the Pennine Alps, connecting Switzerland with Italy. The Simplon and Saint Gotthard passes are also of great importance. The latter gained fame thanks to Suvorov’s unprecedented crossing of the Alps in 1799.
In the Eastern Alps, the most convenient is the low (1371 m) Brenner Pass. The first Alpine railway, built in 1867, passed through it. In the second half of the 19th century. Railways crossed almost all the most important Alpine passes. During the construction of these roads, it was necessary to build a large number of tunnels, as a result of which many features of the geological structure of the Alps were revealed. Currently, a tunnel has been built under Mont Blanc on the highway connecting France with Italy.
Alps arose as a result of the collision of the continental plates of Eurasia and Africa at the site of the closed part of Tethys. The result was extensive overturned nappe folds that included fragments of the oceanic crust that made up the ridges of the Alpine mountain system. A major role in the creation of the very diverse relief of the Alps, along with folding in the Mesozoic and Paleogene, was played by powerful vertical movements at the end of the Neogene - the beginning of the Quaternary period, and then by strong erosion activity and the impact of ancient glaciation, which was especially powerful in the Alps.
The strip of the highest ridges and massifs, composed of crystalline rocks and partly limestone, is distinguished by sharp, jagged lines of ridges with individual peaks eaten away by large cirques, steep, steep slopes devoid of vegetation, hanging deep valleys, and huge tongues of glaciers. The lower parts and marginal ridges of the Pre-Alps are characterized by a medium-altitude type of relief with rounded peaks and soft contours of the slopes. The valleys there are wide and terraced, with lake-like extensions.
In the north, at the foot of the Alps, in the triangle between them, the Jura Mountains and the valley of the upper Danube, there is a foothill plateau 400-600 m high, composed of destruction products that were once carried down from the mountain slopes. This clastic material was assembled into surface folds during the final phases of orogenesis. The plateau is covered by thick accumulations of glacial deposits left by Alpine glaciers: terminal moraine ridges, accumulations of bottom moraine and masses of outwash sand. The Alpine foothill plateau is located within Switzerland and the Federal Republic of Germany. Accordingly, its smaller western part is called Swiss plateau, and the eastern - Bavarian.
The Swiss plateau is bordered from the north by a system Jurassic Mountains, representing the advanced chain of the Alpine mountain system. Parallel anticlinal ridges with a maximum height of more than 1700 m, composed of Jurassic limestones, separate wide longitudinal valleys filled with flysch. The ridges are crossed by narrow gorges that connect longitudinal valleys and create a lattice erosion network. The slopes and peaks of the Jura ranges are corroded by karst caves, sinkholes and underground rivers.
The southern slopes of the Alps are devoid of foothills. In the east are the Pre-Alps, and in the west high crystalline massifs break off to the Padan Lowland, within which the southern outskirts of the Alpine mountain system are immersed. From the beginning of the Cenozoic, on the site of the lowland, there was a gulf of the Adriatic Sea, which was gradually filled with clastic material carried down from the Alps and Apennines; the basin drained towards the end of the Neogene. Most of the Padan Lowland is located below 100 m above sea level. At the foot of the mountains, the relief of the lowland is hilly, the surface is composed of coarse material, terminal moraine deposits and outwash sands. Towards the Po Valley, the surface is covered with a thin layer of alluvial sediments, and the relief becomes flatter. The Po River and many of its lower tributaries flow in natural levees above the surrounding area. When it flows into the Adriatic Sea, the Po forms a large, rapidly growing delta. Sand spits and islands are grouped along the flat lagoonal coast of the lowland. Venice is located in one of the lagoons on numerous islands separated by straits. The straits are streets, so Venice gives the impression of a city rising from the sea. Currently, there is a progressive subsidence of the coast, which threatens to flood a large part of the city.
Useful fossils. The Alpine mountainous country does not have large reserves of mineral raw materials. Minerals are concentrated in the Eastern Alps and are associated with rocks of the central crystalline zone. These are deposits of iron and copper ores and magnesite in Austria. In the basins of the Eastern Alps, sedimentary deposits contain small deposits of brown coal and salt.
Climatic conditions. The Alps, rising in the path of humid western air currents, are a large condenser of moisture. The northern and western marginal ridges receive especially a lot of precipitation, from 1500 to 3000 mm per year, foggy and cloudy weather prevails. Internal ridges, closed valleys and basins receive significantly less moisture (less than 1000 mm). The greatest amount of precipitation falls to an altitude of 1500-2000 m, where the zone of maximum cloudiness is located. Above this zone the weather is drier and clearer.
On the slopes of the Alps, high-altitude climatic zonation is clearly expressed, manifested in the transition from the warm temperate and even subtropical climate of the southern foothills to the harsh high-mountain climate of the upper parts of the mountains with frequent frosts, snowstorms, snowfalls and powerful glaciation. There are characteristic differences in the climatic conditions of slopes of different exposures, closed valleys and basins. The latter have a climate with a distinct continental flavor, with winter temperature inversions and less rainfall.
In winter, a huge amount of snow accumulates in the Alps. In some years there is such a quantity of it that Alpine passes become inaccessible, and traffic on railways and roads stops for some time. In the spring, avalanches occur in many areas, and the avalanche danger increases due to excessive deforestation. The Alps are characterized by local winds, of which the foehns are especially important, which occur during transition seasons due to the difference in pressure on the northern and southern slopes. On the northern slopes, hair dryers appear as dry and warm downward winds, bringing warm and clear weather, accelerating the melting of snow and the onset of spring, and in the fall promoting the ripening of crops. But sometimes the consequences of hair dryers can be catastrophic, as increased snow melting causes floods, landslides and destruction of roads.
The climate of the lowland areas located at the northern and southern foothills of the Alps is influenced to a certain extent by the mountains, which is primarily expressed in increased precipitation. The pre-Alpine plateau and Padan lowland receive from 800 to 1200 mm of precipitation per year. Both of these areas have a temperate climate with some continental features, only the climate of the Padan Plain is warmer and more favorable for agriculture than the climate of the Pre-Alpine Plateau.
Natural water. The mountainous terrain and abundance of precipitation make the Alps the most important hydrographic junction in Europe. Many rivers originate from their slopes, receiving abundant rain, snow and glaciers. The largest rivers, originating in the mountains, go far beyond the region. But in their regime, the features created within the Alps are preserved for many hundreds of kilometers.
One of the distinctive features and main decoration of the Alpine mountainous country is its numerous lakes on the southern and northern slopes, as well as within the Swiss Plateau. Formed in the expansions of large river valleys in places where massive ancient glaciers were stationary, lakes are usually very elongated, have an irregular shape, winding banks and considerable depth.
The hydropower reserves concentrated in Alpine rivers are enormous, and most of them are used. Almost the entire industry of Northern Italy, industry and agriculture of Switzerland and Austria, and the aluminum industry of South-Eastern France operate on the energy of Alpine rivers.
The Alps are where major European rivers such as the Rhine and Rhone originate. Both rivers begin in glaciers on the slopes of the Gotthard massif and flow in opposite directions: the Rhone to Geneva, and the Rhine to Lake Constance. On the northern slopes of the Alps, many tributaries of the upper Danube begin, causing its summer floods, which are felt all the way to the Iron Gate. The Po River begins in the Alps and collects its main tributaries from their slopes. Almost along its entire length the Po is a flat river, but the features of its regime largely depend on the Alps. This river and its tributaries, as well as the Adige River, which forms a common delta with the Po, begin in glaciers and have a maximum flow in summer. Sharp fluctuations in the water content of many of these rivers soften the lakes. Large fluctuations in level and floods on the rivers of the Po basin occur due to rainfall that falls heavily in the Alps in spring and autumn. Sometimes, after rainfall in the mountains, floods in the Padan Lowland become catastrophic. Rivers flowing higher than the surrounding area break through natural dams and artificial barriers and flood the flat, table-like lowland. The Po River is of great navigable importance throughout almost its entire course. Natural waterways are complemented by a system of canals that cross the Padan lowland in all directions.
Alps - largest center modern mountain glaciation in Western Europe with a total area of glaciers of more than 4000 km 2. The height of the snow line ranges from 2500 m in the north-west, where precipitation is especially high, to 3200 m in the central, drier part. The largest valley glaciers descend from the Bernese Alps (Aletsch glacier about 24.7 km long), from the Mont Blanc massif (Mer de Glace - 12 km) and the Pennine Alps. The ends of the largest alpine glaciers descend into the forest belt, sometimes more than 1000 m below the snow line. Glaciers are of great importance as moisture conservers, and at the same time, being an integral element of high-mountain nature, they increase the picturesque and recreational attractiveness of the Alps.
Vegetation. The Alps are a forested region. However, the modern picture of their soil and vegetation cover is extremely variegated. This, on the one hand, is the result of natural conditions and the manifestation of altitudinal zonation; on the other hand, it is a consequence of a very profound change in natural conditions under the influence of man.
The Bavarian Plateau, less populated than the Swiss, has deciduous and mixed forests interspersed with areas of peat bogs. Significant areas are cultivated. On the Swiss Plateau, with a warmer climate, the natural soil and vegetation cover was dominated by oak and beech forests on brown soils. But the natural landscapes there have hardly been preserved. The plateau is densely populated - almost the entire population of Switzerland is concentrated here. Most of the territory is occupied by grain crops, lush sown meadows and orchards. The most heat-loving crops, such as grapes, are planted along the shores of lakes. The slopes of the Jura Mountains are covered with beech forests. The valleys are inhabited and cultivated, the beautiful meadows on the tops of the ridges serve as summer pastures.
The natural vegetation of the Padan Lowland - beech forests on brown forest soils - has been completely destroyed. Its natural conditions are extremely favorable for agriculture, which is why it has long been inhabited and occupied by fields and vineyards. Laurels, pomegranate and fig trees, and cypresses grow in the gardens and around the villages. Fruit trees grow in the fields among the wheat and corn, and grapes often climb the trunks of elms and mulberries. 2-3 crops are harvested from the fields per year. This leads to severe depletion of the soil, the fertility of which is not restored. Therefore, many lands are gradually becoming unsuitable for further use.
The most complex picture is of the soil and vegetation cover of the Alps themselves, which can serve as a classic example of the altitudinal zonation of mountains in the oceanic sector of the temperate zone. The lower zone of the Alps, up to approximately 1000 m altitude, is very diverse in climate and vegetation cover, its conditions are close to those of the neighboring plains. In the south, Mediterranean influences are felt and subtropical soil and vegetation types can be found. In the west, oak, chestnut and beech forests on brown forest soils rise along the slopes, in the north there are less heat-loving mixed forests on podzolic soils, and from the east the forest-steppe approaches the Alps. This lower belt, which is the most populated and has significantly changed its natural vegetation cover, is called the cultural belt of the Alps.
At high altitudes, climatic conditions become more uniform. To an altitude of approximately 1800-2200 m, in a zone of moderate temperature and heavy rainfall, a belt of forests rises on mountain brown soils and podzolic soils. The composition of forests varies with altitude, as well as depending on the location and aspect of the slopes. In humid places, on the shady northern slopes, beech forest is common, often mixed with spruce. The higher, drier and sunny slopes are covered with beautiful spruce and fir forests. In many areas the forests have been cleared. On deforested slopes, soil erosion processes, avalanches and other phenomena that cause great damage intensify. The current upper limit of forests in the Alps, as a result of annual grazing in the subalpine zone, has been reduced by almost 100 m in height and is almost nowhere dependent on natural conditions.
Above the forest zone there is a subalpine zone, where shrub vegetation is combined with lush subalpine meadows and individual oppressed trees. The growth of trees is hampered by the short growing season, strong winds, and sharp fluctuations in temperature and humidity. This belt is most favorable for the growth of herbs, which achieve exceptional lushness and beauty. Thickets of creeping or low-growing shrubs are also common, among which the most common are alpine rhododendron with bright red flowers, juniper and mountain pine with branches pressed to the ground. The Alpine belt proper at altitudes up to 2500-3000 m is characterized by a complete absence of woody vegetation, the predominance of low-growing, sparsely growing perennial grasses with bright flowers, forming so-called “carpets” (mattas), and the spread of swamps. The Alpine belt gradually turns into a belt of eternal snow and ice. Here, in close proximity to the snow, a typical representative of the flora of the Alps is sometimes found - the low-growing silver edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum).
Animal world. The Alps have more wildlife than neighboring densely populated areas of Europe. This especially applies to mountain ranges, where many animals displaced by humans from plains and low-mountain areas find refuge. Most of the animals of the Alps spend the winter in the forest belt, and in the summer they rise to the high-mountain meadows; others live permanently in one zone or another.
Chamois and ibex descend into the forests from rocky peaks in winter, where they spend the summer. A typical alpine resident, the marmot, roams the meadows in the summer.
The forests of the Alps are richly populated by birds. Some live there permanently, while others, mainly carnivores, fly to the alpine zone in the summer following the small mammals that serve as food for them. The most common representatives of the Alpine avifauna are crows, jackdaws, swallows, tits and woodpeckers. There is a lot of fish in mountain rivers and streams, of which trout (Salmo fario) is the most prized.
Population and environmental problems. The Alps are one of the most densely populated and visited mountainous countries on Earth. The economy of the Alpine countries is largely based on tourism and sports. This causes certain damage to the alpine nature, since numerous tourists, hunters, and athletes pollute the environment and disturb biocenoses, and recreational construction and the creation of tourist infrastructure leads to the loss of picturesque landscapes and the intensification of negative natural-anthropogenic processes (erosion, avalanches, etc. .). In Alpine countries, serious attempts are being made to protect natural landscapes and restore forests and wildlife. Nature reserves and national parks have been organized, the largest of which is Gran Paradiso in Italy.
The Alps are the highest and longest mountain range among the systems entirely located in Europe. Wherein Caucasus Mountains higher, and the Ural ones are more extensive, but they also lie on the territory of Asia. The Alps are a complex system of ridges and massifs, stretching in a convex arc to the northwest from the Ligurian Sea to the Middle Danube Lowland. The Alps are located on the territory of 8 countries: France, Monaco, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein and Slovenia. The total length of the Alpine arc is about 1200 km (along the inner edge of the arc about 750 km), the width is up to 260 km. The highest peak of the Alps is Mont Blanc with an altitude of 4810 meters above sea level, located on the border of France and Italy. In total, there are about 100 four-thousander peaks concentrated in the Alps. The Alps are international center mountaineering, skiing and tourism. Tourism in the Alps began to actively develop in the 20th century and received a big boost after the end of the Second World War, becoming one of the main destinations at the end of the century.
Five out of eight countries (Switzerland, France, Italy, Austria and Germany) were hosts of the Winter Games Olympic Games, which were carried out in alpine sites. Despite active development tourism, the Alpine region still has a distinctive traditional culture, including agriculture, woodworking and cheese making.
Thanks to its central location Western Europe The Alps are one of the most studied mountain systems. Many concepts are named after the Alps, in particular, the alpine climate zone, the period of alpine folding, the alpine type of relief, alpine meadows, mountaineering.
There is no unanimously accepted opinion on the origin of the name Alps.
According to one version, the Latin word Alpes, which was derived from Albus (White), was used back in the 1st century BC to refer to mountains covered with snow. Another suggestion is that the name came from the words Al or Ar, which meant highland. The word Alpe in modern French and Italian means Mountain peak, as well as Alp in German.
The word Alpeis, or Alpes, was used to designate high mountains and mountain ranges by scientists of Ancient Greece and Ancient Byzantium. In particular, Procopius of Caesarea, a Byzantine writer of the 6th century, refers in his writings to the Alps and Pyrenees by the same name, Geminas Alpeis. Other mountains were called by similar names ( Carpathian mountains- Basternikae Alpes). This word has been preserved unchanged in modern Greek - Άλπεις (Alpeis).
The Celtic language also contained the word Alpes, which the Celts used to call everything high mountains. Then it was transformed into the English Alps. Presumably, it came to the Celts from the Roman Empire.
Geography
The Alps are an important climate division in Europe. To the north and west of them there are territories with a temperate climate, to the south - subtropical Mediterranean landscapes. Precipitation on the windward western and northwestern slopes is 1500 - 2000 mm, in some places up to 4000 mm per year. In the Alps are located the sources of large rivers (Rhine, Rhone, Po, Adige, right tributaries of the Danube), as well as numerous lakes of glacial and tectonic-glacial origin (Bodensee, Geneva, Como, Lago Maggiore and others).
The altitudinal zonation of the landscapes is well expressed. Up to an altitude of 800 meters, the climate is moderately warm, on the southern slopes it is Mediterranean, there are many vineyards, gardens, fields, Mediterranean shrubs and deciduous forests. At an altitude of 800 - 1800 meters, the climate is temperate and humid; broad-leaved forests of oak and beech are gradually replaced upward by coniferous forests. Up to an altitude of 2200 - 2300 meters, the climate is cold, with long-lasting snow (the so-called Subalpine belt). Shrubs and tall grass meadows and summer pastures predominate. Higher up, to the border of eternal snow, there is the so-called alpine belt with a cold climate, a predominance of low-grass sparse alpine meadows, covered with snow most of the year. Even higher is the nival belt with glaciers, snowfields, and rocky slopes.
Climate
To the north and west of the Alps there are areas with a temperate climate, to the south there are subtropical Mediterranean landscapes. The climate of different alpine regions depends on the altitude, position and direction of the wind. In the summer in the Alps there are hot days followed by cold evenings. In the mornings in the mountains it is usually sunny; in the afternoon there are clouds. Winter brings frequent snowfalls and prolonged periods of low temperatures. The climate on the northern side of the Alps is colder and wetter, while on the southern side it is warmer and drier. The average temperature in July is below +14 °C, in January - up to −15 °C. There is 1000 mm of precipitation per year. Snow remains on the plains from one to six months a year. Throughout most of the winter, fog lingers in the valleys. The Alps are characterized by local winds. The most important of them is a warm and dry foehn, which is formed as a result of the descent of air masses along mountain slopes and their compression, accompanied by adiabatic heating. This significantly increases the local temperature, which leads to sudden melting of snow and frequent avalanches, which poses a threat to people's lives and can cut off outside world entire mountainous regions. At the same time, the foehn creates conditions for agriculture at much higher absolute altitudes than in places where it does not occur.
The climate and soil and vegetation cover of the Alps have a clearly identified vertical zonation. The Alps are divided into five climate zones, each with a different type of environment. Climate, vegetation and animal world have differences in different climatic zones of the Alps. Zone mountain range above 3000 meters is called the nival zone. This area, which has a cold climate, is constantly covered with perennial snow. Therefore, there is practically no vegetation in the nival zone.
Alpine meadows lie at an altitude of 2000 to 3000 meters. This zone is less cold than the nival zone. Alpine meadows are characterized by specific, low-growing vegetation, as well as vegetation that forms “grass cushions”. This brings this type of ecosystem closer to tundra ones, due to which alpine meadows are also called “mountain tundra.”
Just below the alpine zone is the subalpine belt, at an altitude of 1500 to 2000 meters. Spruce forests grow in the subalpine zone, and the ambient temperature is slowly rising. The temperature in the subalpine zone rises in summer to a maximum of +24 °C on hot sunny days, and usually does not reach +16 °C. Frosts are possible at any time of the year.
At an altitude of 1000 to 1500 meters there is a temperate zone. Millions of oak trees grow in this area. Agriculture is also practiced here.
Below 1000 meters there is a lowland characterized by a wide variety of vegetation. Villages are also located in lowlands, since the temperature regime is suitable for the life of people and animals.
Flora of the Alps
In the Alpine regions, scientists have identified 13,000 plant species. Alpine plants are grouped by habitat and soil type, which may be calcareous (limestone) or non-calcareous. Plants live in different ranges of natural conditions: from meadows, swamps, forests (deciduous and coniferous) and areas not affected by talus and avalanches, to cliffs and ridges. Due to the presence of altitudinal zones, the diversity and specificity of the alpine flora mainly depends on the altitude above sea level. In the Alps there are a variety of biotopes - meadows that are covered with brightly colored flowers in the valleys, and high mountain areas with modest vegetation. Coniferous trees grow up to an altitude of 2400 meters above sea level. Higher up, up to 3200 meters, there are still dwarf trees. One of the most famous mountain plants is the glacier buttercup, which is a record holder among plants and is found up to an altitude of 4200 meters. Small groups of plants are found at an altitude of 2800 meters. Many of them, such as forget-me-not and tar, have a special cushion-like shape that protects them from herbivores living at these altitudes and moisture loss. In this way, young shoots are also protected from wind and frost. The famous edelweiss is covered with a layer of white hairs that retain heat well.
Fauna of the Alps
The Alps are home to 30,000 animal species. All mammals live in the Alps year-round, but some of them hibernate during the winter. Only a few bird species remain in the mountains throughout the year. Certain species of birds living in the Alps have perfectly adapted to this rather inhospitable environment. For example, the snow finch (Oenanthe deserti) builds nests in rock cracks above the forest boundary, and looks for its food (seeds and insects) on mountain slopes. The Alpine jackdaw (Pyrrocorax graculus) also nests on rocks, well above the forest line. In winter, Alpine jackdaws form large flocks and gather around tourist bases and stations, where they feed mainly on waste. The nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes) prepares for winter in a special way. In autumn, this bird stores seeds and nuts, which it buries in the ground. Before the start of winter, Kedrovka collects more than 100 thousand seeds, which he hides in about 25 thousand caches. Thanks to its amazing memory, the nutcracker finds most of its hiding places in winter under a layer of snow, the thickness of which can be more than one meter. The nutcracker also feeds its chicks with seeds from the storeroom.
Conservation of fauna is ensured through national parks located in the Alps.
Tourism
The Alps are an area of international mountaineering, skiing and tourism. The Alps are popular both in summer and winter as a destination for tourism and sports. Skiing, snowboarding, sledding, snowshoeing, ski tours Available in most regions from December to April. In summer the Alps are popular with hikers, cyclists, paragliders and climbers, while the many alpine lakes attract swimmers, yachtsmen and surfers. Lowland regions and big cities The Alps are well connected by motorways and expressways, but higher up, mountain passes and highways can be dangerous even in summer. Many mountain passes are closed in winter. The development of tourism is facilitated by a large number of airports throughout the Alps, as well as good railway connections with all neighboring countries. The Alps are typically visited by more than 50 million tourists annually.
Information
- Countries: France, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, Slovenia, Monaco
- Education period: Mesozoic
- Square: 190,000 km²
- Length: 1,200 km
- Width: up to 260 km
- highest peak: Mont Blanc
- Highest point: 4810 m
Source. wikipedia.org
