Architecture, or architecture, is the art of constructing buildings and their complexes designed for the everyday needs of private, public life and human activities. Any building contains a vital spatial core - the interior. Its character, expressed in external form, is predetermined by its purpose, living conditions, the need for convenience, space and freedom of movement. Connected in its development with the constantly changing material needs of man, with the development of science and technology, architecture is one of the forms of material culture.
At the same time, architecture is one of the art forms. The artistic images of architecture reflect the structure of social life, the level of spiritual development of society, and its aesthetic ideals. The architectural design and its expediency are revealed in the organization of interior spaces, in the grouping of architectural masses, in the proportional relationships of parts and the whole, in the rhythmic structure. The relationship between the interior and the volume of the building characterizes the originality of the artistic language of architecture.
The artistic design of the exterior of buildings is of great importance. Like no other form of art, architecture constantly influences the consciousness of the masses of people with its artistic and monumental forms. It reveals the uniqueness of the surrounding nature. Cities, like people, have a unique face, character, life, and history. They tell about modern life, about the history of past generations.
The diversity of human social needs gives rise to a variety of types of architecture: residential, public-civil, industrial. Urban planning takes into account the nature of the area, the economy, transport conditions, and population distribution. During periods of artistic upsurge, architecture develops harmoniously in collaboration with other forms of art. Sculpture, painting, and decorative arts embody in concrete images the ideas embedded in the structure. Both architecture and fine art enrich each other in this synthesis.
Ancient Rome means not only the city of Rome of the ancient era, but also all the countries and peoples it conquered that were part of the colossal Roman power - from British Isles to Egypt. Roman art is the highest achievement and the result of the development of ancient art. It was created not only by the Romans (or Italics), but also by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Shins, inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula, Gaul, Ancient Germany and other peoples conquered by Rome, sometimes standing at a higher level of cultural development. Roman art developed on the basis of a complex interpenetration of the original art of local Italian tribes and peoples, primarily the powerful Etruscans, owners of an ancient, highly developed, original artistic culture. They introduced the Romans to the art of urban planning (various versions of vaults, the Tuscan order, engineering structures, temples and residential buildings, etc.), monumental wall painting, sculptural and pictorial portraits, distinguished by a keen perception of nature and character.
In artistic skill, of course, the ancient Greek school dominated, but the forms of art in each province of the Roman state were influenced by local traditions. A particularly great contribution to the creation of Roman culture was made by greek colonists in Southern Italy and Sicily, their rich cities were centers of scientific life and artistic culture of antiquity.
The breadth of urban planning, which developed not only in Italy, but also in the provinces, distinguishes Roman architecture. Having adopted rationally organized, strict planning from the Etruscans and Greeks, the Romans improved it and implemented it in larger cities. These layouts met the conditions of life: trade on a huge scale, the spirit of the military and strict discipline, the desire for entertainment and pomp. In Roman cities, the needs of the free population and sanitary needs were to a certain extent taken into account; ceremonial streets with colonnades, arches, and monuments were erected here.
Ancient Rome gave humanity a real cultural environment: beautifully planned, comfortable cities with paved roads, bridges, library buildings, archives, nymphaeums (sanctuaries, sacred nymphs), palaces, villas and simply good houses with good quality beautiful furniture - all that characteristic of a civilized society.
The Romans first began to build “standard” cities, the prototype of which were Roman military camps. Two perpendicular streets were laid - cardo and decumanum, at the crossroads of which the city center was built. The urban layout followed a strictly thought-out scheme. The practical makeup of Roman culture was reflected in everything - in sobriety of thinking, a normative idea of an expedient world order, in the scrupulousness of Roman law, which took into account all life situations, in the inclination to exact historical facts, in the high flowering of literary prose, in the primitive concreteness of religion.
In Roman art during its heyday, the leading role was played by architecture, the monuments of which even now, even in ruins, captivate with their power. The Romans marked the beginning of a new era of world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings, embodying the ideas of the power of the state and designed for huge numbers of people.
Throughout the ancient world, Roman architecture has no equal in the height of engineering art, the variety of types of structures, the richness of compositional forms, and the scale of construction. The Romans introduced engineering structures (aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors, fortresses) as architectural objects into urban, rural ensembles and landscapes.
The beauty and power of Roman architecture are revealed in reasonable expediency, in the logic of the structure of the structure, in artistically precisely found proportions and scales, in the laconicism of architectural means, and not in lush decorativeness. The enormous achievement of the Romans was the satisfaction of practical everyday and social needs not only of the ruling class, but also of the masses of the urban population.
The beginning of ancient Roman art dates back to the period of the Republic (late 6th - mid 1st century BC). It reached its peak during the formation of a world slave-holding power, heterogeneous in ethnic and social composition, complex in economic and social organization.
The needs of Roman society gave rise to many types of structures: amphitheaters, baths, triumphal arches, aqueducts, etc. On Roman soil, palaces, mansions, villas, theaters, temples, bridges, and tombstones received a new architectural design. The rationalism underlying Roman architecture was manifested in the spatial scope, constructive logic and integrity of gigantic architectural complexes, strict symmetry and clarity.
The development of Roman civilization led to significant growth and rise of the capital of the state - the city of Rome, which in the I-III centuries. BC e. had from 1 to 1.5 million inhabitants. Roman cities developed around an urban center that included a forum, basilica, baths, amphitheatres, temples dedicated to local and Roman gods, triumphal arches, administrative buildings, equestrian statues, schools and roads.
Forum(Latin forum - square, place of court, arena in a circus) in Ancient Rome they called the square and the market, which were, as in Ancient Greece agora, the center of cultural life. Nowadays, this word is used to describe any mass meeting or congress. The main forum of Rome was the Forum Romanum. Often, a basilica (from the Greek basilike - royal house) was erected on the forums - a rectangular structure, the internal space of which was divided by rows of columns into three or five naves. Court hearings took place in them; Citizens gathered, merchants and money changers conducted their business. Authorities could also be located here. In imperial palaces, basilicas served as throne rooms. Later, the basilica became one of the main types of Christian temple.
The squares of Rome and other cities were decorated with triumphal arches in honor of military victories, statues of emperors and prominent public people states. Triumphal arches are a permanent or temporary monumental frame of a passage (usually arched), a ceremonial structure in honor of military victories and other significant events. The construction of triumphal arches and columns was primarily of political significance. Trajan's 30-meter column was decorated with a spiral-shaped frieze 200 meters long, depicting Trajan's military exploits, and was crowned by a statue of the emperor, at the base of which an urn with his ashes was walled up.
The most characteristic monuments of Roman architecture are aqueducts, bridges, theaters, baths (public baths), city and country residences of emperors and nobility, and government buildings. Amphitheaters and circuses in which animals were pitted, gladiator fights and public executions were staged were a feature of the cultural life of Rome. The breeding ground for these cruel spectacles was endless wars, a colossal influx of slaves from conquered lands, and the opportunity to feed and entertain the plebs through predatory wars.
Amphitheater(from the Greek amphitheatron) served as a structure for spectacles (most often gladiatorial fights), had an oval arena, around which there were seats for spectators on ledges. The most famous was Coliseum(from Latin colosseus - huge), Flavian amphitheater in Rome, erected in 75-80. n. e., accommodated up to 50 thousand spectators. In plan, the Colosseum is an ellipse with a circumference of 524 m and a height of 57 m, over which an awning was stretched on 240 masts. The amphitheater was divided into four huge tiers. Under the arena there were cages for animals and storage rooms for props. The imperial box was located at a height of 3.5 m above the arena level (78×46 m).
The theater audience, strictly observing social distinctions, was seated in rows carved from powerful stone blocks. Convenient places were intended for local commanders, and the warriors themselves went further; on stone seats; where the name of their class is engraved. A step above, priests and merchants were waiting for the performance to begin. Beggars and prostitutes in the Roman theater were content with cheap last rows. Even Ovid considered the ancient theater as a place exclusively suitable for starting intrigues, in particular love affairs.
The three-tier amphitheater in Orange, perched on a hill, still has excellent acoustics. Today, 10,000 people enjoy opera performances there every year. In 28 BC. e. Emperor Augustus built an amphitheater in Gaul - a monumental stone structure on a “concrete foundation, which had 124 exits and 192 stairs, which allowed 24,000 spectators, located in 34 rows on three tiers, to freely enter and exit. The Colosseum, the center of all 45 Roman public festivals, hosted sacrifices and gladiator fights. Initially, fights were organized in honor of the gods, but then they became the favorite entertainment of the Romans.
In Rome, magnificent buildings of public baths (terms) with hot and cold water, gymnastics areas and rest rooms were built. In many cities, houses of 3-6 floors were erected. Roman baths, that is, baths, played an important role in everyday life. They were huge buildings with vaulted ceilings, which became unique cultural and social centers. The most luxurious of the 1,700 Roman baths, the Baths of Caracalla, built in the 3rd century, accommodated up to 1,300 people. Under their concrete arches there was a swimming pool with running water the size of a small lake and a huge hall for gymnastics. In the building of the thermal baths there was a library in Greek and Latin, lobbies for relaxation, and galleries for friendly conversations. The Baths of Caracalla were decorated with a huge number of sculptural works.
During the imperial period, the layout of Roman cities improved significantly, with many beautiful squares and comfortable houses. During the reign of Nero, a fire broke out in Rome, destroying 10 of the 14 districts in which wooden buildings were located along narrow streets. After what happened, the emperor decided to rebuild Rome according to a new plan - with wide streets, stone houses and a luxurious imperial palace. To raise funds for construction, Nero accused wealthy senators of conspiracy, executed them and confiscated their property.
Unlike the Greeks, who built their buildings from superbly hewn stone slabs, the Romans erected buildings primarily from concrete: the stone or brick shell was filled with a mixture of lime and crushed stone. Hardening, this mass turned the building into a huge monolith. Concrete, one of the most important discoveries of the Romans in the field of engineering technology, was used in the construction of not only entire buildings, but also their fragments, for example, arched vaults, which became one of the fundamental elements of architecture.
A distinctive feature of the cities of the imperial era was the presence of communications: stone pavements, water pipes (aqueducts), sewers (sewers). There were 11 water pipelines in Rome, two of which are still in operation today. Roman aqueducts, bridges and roads serve people well to this day. To communicate with the main centers in the empire, the Romans built 372 stone-paved roads with a total length of about 80 thousand km.
2. FEATURES OF ANCIENT GREECE ARCHITECTURE
One of the greats said: “Architecture is frozen music.”
Ancient Greece is the cradle of European culture and arts. When looking at the artistic masterpieces of that distant era through the centuries, we hear the solemn and hymn music of the beauty and greatness of the creator, who likened himself to the Olympian gods.
Architecture in Ancient Greece developed quickly and in many ways. In the growing Greek cities, stone residential buildings, fortifications, and port structures were created, but the most important and new things appeared not in residential and commercial buildings, but in stone public buildings. It was here, and primarily in the architecture of temples, that the classical Greek architectural orders took shape.
The legacy of ancient Greek architecture underlies all subsequent development of world architecture and related monumental art. The reasons for such a sustainable influence of Greek architecture lie in its objective qualities: simplicity, truthfulness, clarity of compositions, harmony and proportionality of overall forms and all parts, in the plasticity of the organic connection between architecture and sculpture, in the close unity of architectural-aesthetic and structural-tectonic elements of buildings. Ancient Greek architecture was distinguished by the complete correspondence of forms and their structural basis, which formed a single whole. The main structure is stone blocks from which the walls were laid. The columns and entablature (the ceiling lying on a support-column) were processed with various profiles, acquired decorative details, and were enriched with sculpture. The Greeks completed the processing architectural structures and all decorative details without exception to the highest degree of perfection and refinement. These structures can be called gigantic works of jewelry, in which there was nothing secondary for the master.
The architecture of Ancient Greece is closely connected with philosophy, because it and the basis of ancient Greek art were based on ideas about the strength and beauty of man, who was in close unity and harmonious balance with the surrounding natural and social environment, and since social life developed greatly in ancient Greece, then architecture and art had a pronounced social character.
It was this unsurpassed perfection and organic nature that made the monuments of ancient Greek architecture models for subsequent eras.
Ancient Greek architecture developed in two stylistic streams, in two orders (Doric and Ionic), which took shape in the 7th century. BC e. In architecture, an order is understood as a certain system of combination and interaction of load-bearing (supporting) and non-supporting (overlapping) elements. In ancient architecture, these are free-standing column supports and a ceiling lying on them - an entablature.
The main structural elements of the two orders are the same. The basis for them is a platform processed along the entire perimeter with steps - a stylobate. On it, along the entire outer contour of the temple, columns consisting of three parts were installed; base, trunk and capital.
Doric style the simplest, most concise in its form. The main distinguishing features of this order are severity and simplicity. Ionic the style is more complex and has more details. The main features of the Ionic style are lightness of proportions, great differentiation of forms, grace and relative decorativeness. In addition to the two main styles, ancient Greek architecture developed a third - Corinthian. Corinthian style even lighter than the Ionic one and should be considered as a secondary formation that arose on the basis of Ionic architecture.
The order system appears in its most clearly expressed form in churches. Ancient Greek temples were small in size compared to ancient Egyptian ones and were proportionate to a person. Divine services took place outside the walls of the temple, which was considered the home of the gods. In plan, the temples were a rectangle, surrounded by columns around the perimeter, with a gable roof. The entrance was decorated with a triangular pediment. In the center of the temple was a statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated. The composition of Greek temples is different. Order stylistic elements are used specifically in each type of structure.
The simplest and earliest type of temple was distillate, or “temple in the antas.” It consists of a sanctuary - cella, rectangular in plan, the front facade of which is a loggia with a central opening. On the sides the loggia is limited by side walls, which are called anta. Two columns were placed between the antas along the front pediment (therefore the temple was called “distile,” i.e., “two-columned”).
The second, also relatively simple type of temple - prostyle. It is similar to the assembly one, the only difference is that the prostyle has not two, but four columns on the facade.
Third type - amphiprostyle. It's like a double style - porticoes with four columns are located on both the front and rear facades of the building.
The fourth type of temple is peripter. This is the most common type of temple. It is surrounded by columns on all sides, along the perimeter. Usually there are six columns on the front and rear facades, and the number of side ones was determined by the formula 2π + 1, where π is the number of columns on the front facade. Sometimes on the side facades there were not one, but two rows of columns. This type of temple is called dipter. There was another type of temple in Greece - round peripter, where the sanctuary - cella - had a cylindrical shape and along the entire perimeter the temple was surrounded by a ring of columns.
The Greeks used beam ceilings in their buildings, including temples. The distances between the supports were small and did not exceed 10 m. The order system of the Greeks is a post-and-beam structure. Orders were used not only in the design of external porticoes, but also in the internal volumes of buildings, in interiors.
Of exceptional importance for the subsequent development of world architecture are the principles of architectural and planning solutions in Greece, expressed most fully in ensembles.
Thus, in the ensemble of the Athens Acropolis, asymmetry is combined with a harmonious balance of masses, the interaction of individual structures with each other is thought out and the consistency in the perception of buildings outside and inside the complex is taken into account, the architects thought out the close connection of this architectural structure with the surrounding landscape. The Acropolis of Athens (“upper city”) is an elongated natural rock with a flat top. Its dimensions are about 300 m in length and 130 m in width. The ensemble is based on two successively followed principles that ancient Greek architecture followed: the harmonious balance of masses and the perception of architecture in the process of its gradual, “dynamic” development.
Greek architects paid exceptional attention natural conditions and always sought to introduce their structures into the surrounding landscape thoughtfully and with the greatest artistic result. The “pearl” of the acropolis is the Parthenon Temple, the central building of the ensemble. This is a large peripter (8x17 columns with a height of 10.5 m). Creating an impression of harmony and majestic beauty is facilitated by the active use of sculpture both outside and inside the temple. That is why the Parthenon is one of the brightest examples in world architecture of a genuine and deep synthesis of arts.
In addition to temples, Greek architects erected many other architectural structures of a public nature: stadiums, palaestra (a hall for gymnastic exercises), residential buildings, theaters (odeons). Theaters in Greece were located on hillsides. A stage was built across the slope for the audience, below them a stage platform was erected for the choir's performances - the "orchestra", and the actors were on the stage, the "skene". The largest theater accommodated up to 25 thousand spectators.
Residential buildings often had a rectangular courtyard in the center, into which the doors and windows of the premises opened. If there were two floors, the upper one housed the gynaecium - the female part of the house. The main room - andron - was intended for feasts and meals.
During the Hellenistic period, urban planning became the main theme of architecture. New cities and numerous shopping centers are being built, construction is carried out on a large scale and at a rapid pace. There is a need to develop technical techniques and theoretical foundations for the construction of countless buildings for various purposes. They are summarized in architectural treatises, the authors of which, based on the original principles of ancient Greek art, strive to develop ways of rational construction in both architectural, planning and technical terms. At this time, a basic layout of the city was being developed, divided by a rectilinear grid of streets into equal-sized blocks. In the center of the city there were public buildings - the people's assembly, the city council, the basilica (judicial and administrative building), gymnasiums, schools, and churches. The central city square takes on the character of a market (agora). Both the square and the streets were bordered by porticoes creating shade. The contours of the city were surrounded by defensive walls.
The composition of public buildings, diverse in function, is also very different. But there is a general spatial technique that was preferred - the use of the theme of the peristyle courtyard, which in various combinations retains the significance of the compositional center of the building.
CONCLUSION
The origin of architecture dates back to the time of the primitive communal system, when the first artificially constructed dwellings and settlements arose. The simplest techniques for organizing space based on a rectangle and a circle were mastered, and the development of structural systems with supports began.
With the emergence of states, a new form of settlements emerged - the city as a center of administration and trade. The art of Ancient Rome left humanity an enormous legacy, the significance of which is difficult to overestimate. The great organizer and creator of modern norms of civilized life, Ancient Rome decisively transformed the cultural appearance of a huge part of the world. For this alone he is worthy of lasting glory and the memory of his descendants. In addition, the art of Roman times left many remarkable monuments in a variety of fields, ranging from works of architecture to glass vessels. Each ancient Roman monument embodies a tradition compressed by time and taken to its logical conclusion. It carries information about faith and rituals, the meaning of life and the creative skills of the people to whom it belonged, and the place this people occupied in the grandiose empire. The Roman state is very complex. He alone had the mission of saying goodbye to the thousand-year-old world of paganism and creating those principles that formed the basis of Christian art of the New Age.
Under the slave-owning democracy of Ancient Greece, an entire system of city-states was created. A street planning system is being developed, with a straight grid of streets and a square - the center of commercial and public life. The cultural and architectural compositional center of the city was the temple, which was erected on top of the acropolis. The classically completed type of temple was the peripterus (for example, the Parthenon in Athens).
In ancient Rome, a huge Mediterranean power that inherited the traditions of Ancient Greek architecture, buildings that expressed the power of the republic and satisfied the needs of the slave state acquired leading importance. For the construction of large buildings, the emergence of new building materials (concrete) played a major role.
The Roman Empire is one of the ancient civilizations peace. Its history begins more than three thousand years ago, and it flourished in the first centuries of our era. The collapse of ancient Roman civilization is associated with the raids of barbarians, which also marked the beginning of the destruction of an immense number of architectural structures of that time. Only a part of them have survived to this day, but this is enough to enjoy the grandeur and beauty of ancient cultural objects.
The tenth place among the most popular architectural attractions of Rome can be safely given to this unique structure. The reason for the construction of the Arc de Triomphe in 81 AD was the capture of Jerusalem a decade earlier by Emperor Titus.
The arch has one span and is located on the Sacred Way Via Sacra. A distinctive feature of the building is the amazing bas-relief inside the arch, which depicts a procession of soldiers showing off their trophies obtained in Jerusalem.
The arch has almost completely preserved its original appearance, with the exception of the absence of a statue of Titus himself, cast from bronze, at the top of the monument.
Thanks to its unique structure, this monument rises to 9th place in the ranking among others. The column is dedicated to Emperor Trajan, who came from ordinary legionnaires, who strengthened and strengthened the power of the Roman Empire during his reign.
The monument was erected in 113 AD. Inside there is a spiral staircase leading to observation deck capitals, and the outside of the column is decorated with relief episodes from battles during the war between Dacia and Rome.
The base of the monument, inside which urns with ashes are located, is the tomb of Emperor Trajan, who died in 117 AD, and his life partner.
Trevi Fountain
Rome has preserved a large number of beautiful fountains, among which the most popular is the Trevi Fountain, for which it received eighth place on the list of attractions.
This building has amazing story. Back in 20 AD, Emperor Octavian Augustus established a water supply for residents with clean water, fed from a source 12 km away from the city. Until the 18th century, the building had a modest appearance, and only in 1762, after a thirty-year period of construction, it acquired its unique appearance.
The fountain is a stone sculpture of the sea god Neptune, surrounded by many characters, striking in the precision of their details and facial expressions.
Baths of Caracalla
Seventh place goes to the so-called “bath complexes” of Rome. They were created under Marcus Aurelius, the emperor nicknamed Caracalla, in the 3rd century AD.
The building had many compartments designed not only to wash, but also to completely relax, enjoy and rest your soul. The buildings included the baths themselves (therms), libraries, places for theatrical performances, and gymnasiums.
The purpose of this building was to attract people and popularize the thermal baths, and therefore the emperors sought not only to decorate the walls and floors of the building with unique mosaics and marble, but also collected numerous sculptures and other art treasures in it.
Catacombs
The sixth place goes to the numerous underground labyrinths of Rome, which are ancient burial places of people canonized as saints.
The burials lasted from the 1st to the 5th centuries AD. During this period, about 750 thousand people were buried in the tombs, which number more than sixty.
Since the catacombs are located along the entire perimeter of the city in its different areas, there is no one specific entrance to them. You can get into the underground labyrinths by studying the official websites of the tombs.
Mausoleum of Hadrian
Another unique building of Ancient Rome - the Castel Sant'Angelo - falls into fifth place in the ranking. During its history, this place has managed to be a tomb, a prison, a residence of popes and a repository of their valuables, a castle, and is currently a museum and architectural monument.
The mausoleum was built in 139 AD by order of Emperor Hadrian himself, who revered art and architecture, for his own burial.
The structure is a twenty-meter high building, cylindrical in shape, and installed on a large square base. Initially, the top of the structure was decorated with a statue of Hadrian, represented in the form of the god Helios driving the chariot. A wonderful bridge, decorated with a large number of antique sculptures, leads to the castle.
Saint Paul's Cathedral
Thanks to his status the main cathedral catholic church, this building rises to fourth place in the ranking of famous architectural structures in Rome.
The construction of the cathedral lasted more than forty years and was the result of the work of many famous sculptors and architects, such as Michelangelo Buonarotti, Giacomo della Porta, Carlo Maderna.
The building has a stunning facade with a cornice topped with sculptures of the eleven apostles (except Peter), John the Baptist and Jesus Christ. And in front of the cathedral itself there are statues of Peter holding the key to the Kingdom of Heaven, and the Apostle Paul solemnly holding a sword in his hand.
The height of the dome mounted on the columns of the cathedral remains the highest in the world to this day, being 138 meters.
The cathedral amazes with its scale and huge number of compartments filled with sculptures, paintings, and stucco moldings. The costs of its construction were so enormous that Pope Leo X was forced to sell Albrecht of Brandenburg the rights to exercise indulgences in German lands, because of whose selfishness a European split occurred in the future.
The top three is opened by a temple built by order of Emperor Hadrian back in the 2nd century AD, and dedicated to all the Gods.
Like many other buildings of ancient Rome, the Pantheon is a tomb for the burial of many famous people (Umberto I, Raphael are buried here).
The most popular and unique feature of the structure is the circular opening located on the roof of the dome, through which a bright, wide beam of light enters the building at midday.
The temple is famous for its rich interior decoration with colored marble, beautiful frescoes and majestic decoration. And, despite the presence of thick walls and a massive dome, a feeling of lightness and integrity of all structures is created inside.
Second place in the ranking goes to the center of public life in Rome - a square built on the site of a once marshy area used for cemeteries, and drained using sewer systems, several centuries BC.
The Roman Forum featured such magnificent architectural structures as the Temple of Vespasian, the Temple of Saturn and the Temple of Vesta.
The temple dedicated to the god Saturn, built 5 centuries BC, has undergone many changes associated with constant destruction and restoration, and has reached our time only in the form of a few columns.
Approximately the same fate affected the Temple of Vespasian, built in 79 AD, of which only three high columns towering 15 meters above the ground now remain.
Only the Temple of Vesta, erected in honor of the goddess of the hearth, has reached our time. After numerous fires that broke out in the building, it was decided to close it, and therefore the building fell into disrepair and became very dilapidated.
This building rightfully ranks first on the list, since it has long been not just a majestic building, but an undeniable symbol of Ancient and modern Rome.
The amphitheater is a multi-tiered oval-shaped building with many arches located around the perimeter different sizes. It took 8 years to build this structure. Each tier is strengthened by columns erected in different architectural styles (Corinthian, Ionic, Doric order).
The exterior of the Colosseum was decorated in marble, and the perimeter was decorated with stunning sculptures.
The most important persons of Rome and the emperor himself sat in the lower boxes for privileged persons.
Although only one third of the building remains intact, the Roman Colosseum remains one of the most stunning architectural structures in the entire world.
The ancient sights of Rome can be assessed today in a very ambiguous way. An impressive arena in which no form of torture was considered too cruel. Places of worship where gods were often honored through ritual sacrifices that would shock us today. Pleasure palaces in which sexual depravity was not only accepted, but even encouraged. The state of Ancient Rome attracts the interest of many researchers and history buffs.
Who were the people who created such grandiose structures in Rome? What drove them to build ever greater monuments and at what cost? What were the laws? The answers to these questions are very interesting, although to this day we do not know everything. The ancient sights of Rome are truly impressive. Let's introduce you to some of them.
Coliseum
Crowds of people were attracted to the arena by the bloody spectacle. At times there were up to 50 thousand spectators in the Roman Colosseum. They all longed to see scenes of indescribable horror. Nobles, priests, senators, emperors, slaves, simple people had fun seeing the bloody scenes.
Gladiators fought each other wearing heavy armor. Often they beat their opponent to death. In the arena they set wild, hungry animals against each other and released them to fight with humans. The goal pursued by the participants in these confrontations was to tear each other to shreds. Some features of Ancient Rome are incomprehensible to us today.
Filling the performance arena with water
Various types of special effects were used on stage. These included filling the arena with water to simulate naval battles. How did the ancient Romans manage to fill the Colosseum with water?
Everything is actually quite simple: a system of reservoirs was filled from aqueducts. They were located directly above the arena, on the slope. These ingenious ancient Romans pumped water down from aqueducts and then through reservoirs into the center of the Colosseum. A more difficult question is how did they then manage to pump out the water?
It is believed that the ancient Romans built a sewer system. However, this question has yet to be answered by researchers, since very little excavation has been carried out in the Colosseum until today. The ancient sights of Rome have not yet been sufficiently studied.
Bloody contests
Major Roman myths were part of the performance. Moreover, the more terrible they were, the better. Christians and criminals were often cast in the most dangerous roles.
In the Roman Colosseum, bloody competitions have prevailed since its opening, which occurred in 72 AD. The opening ceremony was hosted by Emperor Titus. It lasted 100 days. An unprecedented massacre occurred on the opening day: about 5 thousand animals died.
The Colosseum - the gift of Vespasian
The Colosseum is a gift to the Romans from their predecessor and father Titus. Vespasian, founder of the Flavian dynasty, began to rule in 69 AD. This time was a critical moment in the history of Rome. Hundreds of years had passed since the empire was founded by Augustus, and its future was now very uncertain.
Chaos reigned as Four Emperors changed in one year. After this, Vespasian, who ruled Syria, seized power.
A skillful diplomat and hero, he easily gained the support of the Senate and was declared emperor. After this, having suppressed the uprising on the Rhine and the Jewish riot in Jerusalem, he focused on domestic problems.
During his ten-year reign, Vespasian relieved the treasury of the deficit left by his predecessor Nero. He also began to build many. The most ambitious undertaking was the Colosseum. It was intended as a symbol of Vespasian's success and power.
Construction of the Colosseum
It took more than 10 years to complete construction. The Colosseum was originally called the Flavian Amphitheatre. Many laborers and slaves were used to build it. Some of the builders were prisoners captured by Vespasian after winning the Jerusalem campaign.
To this day, the name of the architect who created the Colosseum is unknown. One of the most amazing features of this attraction is the highly complex system created for crowd control. The amphitheater originally had 80 entrances. They all led to certain sectors. The places were divided into tiers.
Fate of the Colosseum
The last games known from written sources were held in the 6th century AD. They completed these cruel competitions, which amused the once bloodthirsty Romans. The Colosseum was not used for a long time after that. It was partially destroyed, like many other ancient sites of Rome. A terrible earthquake occurred in the 9th century, as a result of which most of it was destroyed.
Later, the Colosseum began to be used as a quarry. The rich marble cladding was torn off, which began to be used in the construction of churches and palaces. A portion of the four levels that originally existed still remained intact. To this day, the Colosseum stands as a testament to both the cruelty of the ancient Romans and the skill of the people who built the landmarks of Ancient Rome. It attracts many tourists to Italy.
Pantheon
The temples of ancient Rome are impressive. The most famous of them is the Pantheon. In the 1930s, Benito Mussolini, the Italian dictator, conceived an original propaganda campaign. In particular, he drew parallels between the glory of the new regime and the greatness possessed by the empire of Ancient Rome. This led to many archaeological studies and excavations throughout the state. Due to the flooding of the Tiber, earth deposits appeared on many monuments, completely covering them. due to its proximity to the river it was heavily damaged. This structure was built approximately from 27 to 23 BC.
Architectural plan discovered by workers
The workers, going 6-7 meters into the ground, discovered a pavement that was made of massive blocks. However, World War II soon began, and for some time this discovery was forgotten. Only 20 years later, in 1964, Roman specialists again began to study this place. A full-scale architectural plan was carved into the pavement. It is obvious that the courtyard served as a workshop for a construction project. The whole question is for what purpose.
None of the existing monuments corresponded to the project. One of the specialists solved the riddle in 1992. It seems that these plans were created for the Pantheon. Many parts of the structure matched exactly, but not all.
First Pantheon
The Pantheon is a famous temple that was built in honor of the emperor and also for the worship of the gods of Rome. What we see now is not the first Pantheon. The temple was originally the idea of Marcus Agrippa, a powerful Roman general. Construction began in 27 BC and was completed two years later. However, in 64 AD. a great fire destroyed the Pantheon.
Rebuilding the Pantheon
After this, in 118 AD, perestroika began, led by He was an amateur architect who participated in many building projects in Rome.
The Pantheon was built after 10 years of work. Adrian dedicated the building to its first builder. That is why the name of Marcus Agrippa can be seen on the facade.
The Pantheon is notable for its huge rotunda, made of brick and stone, as well as the vault that forms the dome. The Pantheon is a square structure, 43 meters high and wide. Its walls are 7.5 meters thick, and each of the bronze doors weighs 20 tons.
Where there are now paintings based on biblical motifs, there used to be marble statues of the gods of Rome.
Baths of Caracalla
Sights of Ancient Rome also include the Baths of Caracalla. These ancient baths are similar to modern health centers. They are the largest and most ornate of all the public baths built in ancient Rome. Their construction began by Septimius Severus in 206 AD. And construction was completed in 216. The son of Septimius opened it.
Thermal decorations, their use
These buildings of Ancient Rome were truly richly decorated: walls lined with marble, mosaic floors, stucco ceilings.
The thermal baths occupied a large and beautifully decorated area, used as a gymnasium. Here the men played sports: javelin, discus, and boxing. Entrance to the baths was free even for slaves. Initially, women and men washed together, but at the beginning of the 2nd century Hadrian prohibited this.
Invasion of the Goths, destruction of the baths
These ancient Roman buildings continued to be used until 535 AD. At this time, the Goths invaded and broke the aqueduct. The same fate befell the Baths of Caracalla, like many other monuments of Ancient Rome. They were partially destroyed. The large sums required for their repairs disappeared when the empire collapsed and the world around them, familiar to the inhabitants, disappeared. Ancient Rome was becoming a thing of the past.
In the Middle Ages, marble and bronze were torn from the walls, and the beautiful sculptures that decorated the baths ended up in the collections of the Popes and the aristocracy.
Forum
Not much remains of the majestic Roman Forum. It was the center of life in Rome. The Forum appeared in the 4th century BC. In its place today only fragments of some monuments, many overturned stones and a couple of vaults have survived. Let us note right away that adjacent to the Roman Forum are imperial forums, which are not part of the Roman Forum, although they are similar to it both in purpose and in name.
Reconstruction of the forum by Augustus
The construction of the forum was accidental. There was no systematic plan. Therefore, the forum lacked harmony. During the time of Augustus it was completely reconstructed. This emperor removed most of the structures while paving and expanding the area. Now what the forum looked like during the republican period is a mystery. Many buildings were wooden, so they were demolished or destroyed. Augustus used only stone and cement for construction.
Vestals
The temples of Ancient Rome in the Forum include a temple dedicated to This was one of the most important and ancient goddesses for the Roman people. They associated it with the heart, as well as with fire. It was believed that this fire represented the spiritual strength of the entire country. She was served by priestesses who made sure that the fire did not go out. They had to remain virgins at all times, otherwise they would be executed. The Vestals lived next to the temple. They were chosen from aristocratic families at the age of 6 to 10 years. They had to serve at the temple for 30 years. After completing their service, these women were therefore at least 36 years old. To many they seemed too old to marry. Most Vestals remained priestesses until the end of their lives.
It far surpassed in grandeur, functionalism and scale the models created by the Greeks. The invention of good cement played an important role here. But no less important was the pride of the emperors, who tried over the centuries to surpass their predecessors by erecting ever more majestic, grandiose and richly decorated monuments.
The Roman state goes through a difficult path of development. It first conquers Italy (V-III centuries BC), then Carthage (II century BC) and, finally, Greece (II century BC).
The architecture of Ancient Rome changed noticeably throughout the existence of this powerful state.
Many features formed the basis of Roman art. The predecessors of the Romans were the Etruscans. In the middle of the first millennium they already had their own culture. Etruscan temples are similar to Greek peripters, but they emphasize the front façade more strongly: in front of the entrance there is a platform with columns, and a multi-stage staircase leads to it. When constructing gates, the Etruscans often used a semicircular arch, which the Greeks knew almost nothing about. Their houses had a room in the center with an open square hole in the roof in the middle and walls black with soot. Apparently there was a fireplace there. This gave rise to calling this room an atrium (from the word “ater” - “black”).
Atrium - a room with a hole in the roof
In culture, the official state current of Hellenized society and popular tastes, dating back to the Italian past, collide.
In general, the Roman state is isolated and opposed to the private individual. It was famous for its system of government and law.
The army was the basis of world power. Supreme power was concentrated in the hands of commanders who had little regard for the national and national interests, and cities were built on the model of camps.
According to the views of Vitruvius (the treatise written 27-25 BC), architecture falls into two categories: design and proportions (the relationships between individual parts of the building serve as its basis). And the aesthetic principle is only in the order, the columns attached to the structures.
During the Augustan era (30 BC - 14 AD), architectural monuments such as the “square house” in Nîmes (South France) or the Temple of Fortune Virilis, belonging to the type of pseudoperipterus, were built. The pseudoperipter is similar to the peripter, but the cella is moved back slightly. The temple is placed on a high podium; a wide staircase leads to its entrance (this determines the similarity of the pseudoperipter with Etruscan temples). Only in the Roman temple are the classical forms of the order more strictly observed: fluted columns, Ionian capitals, entablature.
Maison Carré "Square House" in Nîmes (France). I century BC e.
Temple of Fortune Virilis. I century BC e.
Types of homes of wealthy citizens
The originality of Roman architecture responded even more strongly in a new type of dwelling in the spirit of eclecticism: the Italic atrium and the Hellenistic peristyle. The richest Pompeian buildings, such as the houses of Pansa, Faun, Loreus Tiburtina, and Vettii, belong to this type. The peristyle served more as a decoration for a rich estate than as a place for the varied life of its inhabitants, as it was in the houses of Greece.
Unlike the Greek dwelling, all rooms were built in strict order on the sides of its main axis.
Atrium
Peristyle of the House of the Vettii, seen from the side of the large triclinium.
Portico and garden in the house of Lorey Tiburtina
House of the Faun (Villa Publius Sulla). Present tense
House of the Faun (Villa Publius Sulla). It was like that before
Villa of Publius Sulla (House of the Faun). Interior garden with peristyle and Ionic order
Pompeian villas enchant with the high perfection of applied art. But there is a lot of vanity and tasteless luxury slipping in: painting walls with copies of famous Greek paintings of the 4th century, imitating Egyptian flat decorations, or, conversely, creating a deceptive impression of windows.
The Augustan era is characterized by stylization and eclecticism. Among the best monuments of this time is the Altar of Peace in the Forum. The difference in the relief immediately catches the eye: the figures are placed in several plans, which gives a picture-like quality, but between the figures there is no sense of space, air, or light environment, as in Hellenistic reliefs.
Altar of Peace, built in honor of the Goddess of Peace. Indoor museum.
Relief of one of the walls of the altar
The classical movement under Augustus was the main one, but not the only one. In the II century. BC. supporters of Old Testament antiquity opposed imitation of the Greeks.
Engineering structures. Aqueducts
Among the Roman monuments, there is a large section dedicated to engineering structures. Thus, many elements of urban improvement appeared: the paved Appian Way, a water supply system, an aqueduct.
Pont du Gard at Nimes Pont du Gard
Pompeii. Italy
Rome
Lead water supply
Forum
Art becomes in the hands of sovereigns a means of strengthening their authority. Hence the spectacular nature of architectural structures, the large scale of construction, and the predilection for enormous sizes. In Roman architecture there was more shameless demagoguery than genuine humanism and a sense of beauty.
The most magnificent type of building was the forum. Every emperor sought to immortalize himself with such a structure.
The Forum of Emperor Trajan reaches almost the size of the Athenian Acropolis. But in their design, the acropolis and the forum are profoundly different. Prim order and predilection for strict symmetry are expressed on a huge scale.
Forum of Emperor Trajan. Italy
Roman builders did not operate with volumes, like the builders of the Athenian Acropolis, but with open interiors, within which small volumes (columns and temples) stood out. This increased role of the interior characterizes the Roman forum as a stage of great historical significance in the development of world architecture.
Forum, in the center - the columns of the Temple of Saturn, behind them the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus
The photo on the left shows the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine, the largest building ever built in the Forum in 312.
The Temple of Peace, also known as the Forum of Vespasiana (Latin: Forum Vespasiani), was built in Rome in 71 AD. e.
Building of the tabularium (state archive) in the forum, 78 BC. e. - the earliest of the structures that have survived to this day, in which the system of Roman cell architecture was used, combining two opposing design principles - beam and vaulted construction.
Urban layout
Roman cities, like Ostia in Italy or Timgrad (in Africa), are similar in the strict correctness of their plan to military camps. Straight streets are bordered by rows of columns accompanying all movement around the city. The streets end with huge triumphal arches. Living in such a city meant always feeling like a soldier, being in a state of mobilization.
Timgrad is an ancient Roman city in North Africa, located in modern Algeria. 100 AD e.
Triumphal arches
A new type of Roman architecture was the triumphal arch. One of the best is the Arch of Titus. Arches were erected to serve as memories of victories among generations. In the construction of this arch there are two types of order: one implied - on which rests a semi-circular arch, separated from it by a cornice; another order, marked by mighty half-columns, is placed on a high podium and gives the entire architecture a character of pompous solemnity. Both orders penetrate each other; the cornice of the first merges with the cornices of the niches. For the first time in the history of architecture, a building consists of the relationship of two systems.
The Roman predilection for the impression of heaviness and strength is reflected in the Arch of Titus in the huge entablature and attic. Sharp shadows from the cornice add tension and strength to architectural forms.
Amphitheaters
Amphitheaters served as an arena for entertaining and spectacular spectacles for large crowds: gladiator performances and fist competitions. Unlike Greek theaters, they did not provide high artistic impressions. For example, the Colosseum building, which had 80 exits, allowed spectators to quickly fill the rows and leave just as quickly. Inside, the Colosseum makes an irresistible impression with its clarity and simplicity of form. On the outside it was decorated with statues. The entire Colosseum expressed restraint, at the same time as impressiveness. For this reason, its three open tiers are crowned with a fourth, more massive, dissected by only flat pilasters.
The Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater) today. Year of construction -80 n. e.
The original appearance of the Colosseum
Colosseum inside
The entire centuries-old experience of Roman construction was used in the construction of the Pantheon: its double walls with rubble mass inside, unloading arches, a dome with a diameter and height of 42 m. Architecture had never known such a huge artistically designed space. The special strength of the Pantheon lies in the simplicity and integrity of its architectural compositions. There is no complex gradation of scale, no increase in features that give increased expressiveness.
Thermal Baths
The needs of city life created in the middle of the 1st century. AD a new type of building - thermal baths. These buildings met various needs: from the culture of the body to the need for mental food and reflection in solitude. From the outside, the baths had an unremarkable appearance. The main thing about them is. With a large variety of plan forms, builders subordinated them to symmetry. The walls were lined with marble - red, pink, purple or soft green.
Ruins of the baths of Emperor Caracalla (Antonine Baths). III century (212-217)
The history of ancient art ends with Roman art.
The architecture of Ancient Rome is based on two great civilizations - Greek and Etruscan. The Etruscans had excellent technologies for building temples, houses, and tombs. It was they who introduced the arch and vault. But, unlike the Greek ones, the Etruscan temples were built from short-lived materials, so little has survived to this day.
Etruscan arch in Perugia, Italy
However, there are objects by studying which you can get a lot of information about this culture. It is known that the supporting structure of the buildings was made of wood, bricks and terracotta coverings were used.
The Etruscan arch in Perugia is an intact example of a city gate.
Architecture of Ancient Rome: periods
Real Roman architecture with original features that rework Etruscan and Greek influences is defined from the 2nd century BC.
Architecture of the Roman Monarchy
It is believed that Rome was founded in 753 BC. At the beginning of its history, Rome was a monarchy. According to tradition, after the reign of Romulus, King Numa Pompilius ascended the throne and improved the organization of the city's territory. He was succeeded by Tullus Hostilius, an experienced Latin warrior who conquered nearby cities. The fourth king was Anco Marcio, who built the port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber.
Etruscan rulers followed - Tarquinius Priscus ordered the market square, Foro, to be covered with stone, built numerous temples and ordered the digging of the Cloaca Maxima sewer to discharge dirty water. Servius Tullius surrounded the city with a wall.
The monarchy ended with the reign of Lucius Tarquin the Proud, who was expelled from the city in 509 BC, and Rome became a republic.
Architecture of the Roman Republic
During the Republic, which lasted almost five centuries, Rome was always at war. After conquering the Etruscans and other peoples living in what is today Italy, the Roman Republic conquered the territories of Greece and other countries Mediterranean Sea. Construction was actively underway. To move the army, good roads were needed, and many were built. Road (lat. strata) was formed from several layers (Italian. strato) and its surface was covered with stone slabs.
The architecture of the Roman Republic period pays great attention practical and functional aspects buildings.
Architecture of the Roman Empire
After the Roman Republic gave way to the Roman Empire in 31 BC, there was a long period of prosperity for the arts and architecture. Under Emperor Augustus, then under Trojan and Hadrian, the architecture of the Roman Empire reached its splendor and played an important role in the propaganda of power.
Extensive evidence has been preserved relating to architecture, where the Romans demonstrate excellent skills in construction techniques, sculpture (portraits, reliefs that complement the architecture), painting (frescoes, mosaics).
Architecture of the Christian era
The period of barbarian invasions marks the decline of Roman architecture. A new era is coming - Christian.
Main characteristics of Roman architecture
Centinatura. Wooden structure to support vaults - In Roman architecture, of course, there is a great continuity with Greek art- symmetry, regularity of forms, use of architectural orders (Doric, Tuscan, Ionic and Corinthian). In fact, instead of the Doric order, the Romans used the Tuscan order ( tuscanico/toscano), which is very similar to it, the only difference was that the column was smooth, without grooves ( flute).
- From the Etruscans The Romans adopted arches and vaults, becoming the primary experts in their use. During the construction of the arch and vaults, a temporary wooden structure was used for support - centinature ( centinatura). From a large number of arches standing one after another, the Romans formed a cylindrical vault ( volta a botte), and the intersection of two barrel vaults formed a cross vault ( Volta a Crociera). The first builders of real domes were also the Romans. One of the most beautiful domed Vaults is the Pantheon.
Dome vaults in the architecture of Ancient Rome Materials and technologies
The Romans used bricks to build walls, arches, columns, and floors. Marble, as an expensive material, was used much less frequently. The variety of brick shapes - elongated, square, triangular, pyramidal - helped create strong structures and grips.
Brick production was also expensive, and a lot of labor was required for masonry.
That is why they were often replaced with blocks of tuff and travertine, or other materials. To speed up the construction of walls, the Romans began to use artificial conglomerate or Roman concrete ( calcestruzzo).
Concrete was poured into wooden formwork, compacted with a tamper and, after it hardened, the formwork was removed. This method of building walls was called opus caementicium.
When the same technology was used to fill the cavities of two load-bearing walls made of brick or stone, it was called Muratura a sacco. Thus, the Romans received thick, strong walls, saving time and resources. The technique did not affect the aesthetics, because... the concrete part was inside.
Architecture of Ancient Rome: building walls External masonry walls can be characterized according to the main building traditions -
- opus quadratum
- opus reticulatum,
- opus incertum
- opus latericium.
Opus quadratum
When working with a material such as soft tuff, large parallelepiped-shaped stones were cut and arranged in rows of equal height (opus quadratum); if hard limestone such as Traventino was used, each element took on its own polygonal shape (opus polygonalis).
Opus reticulatum
With this technique, cement was poured between walls formed by small pyramidal stone blocks, the bases of which formed a regular diamond-shaped grid.
Ancient Roman stonework: opus quadratum and opus reticulatum Opus incertum
IN opus incertum the stones are irregularly shaped and their arrangement seems almost random.
Opus latericium
Rectangular fired bricks (about 45 cm x 30 cm) were laid in an alternating pattern. Since the Augustan era, its use has become more frequent. Due to the fact that the thickness of the bricks and their color changed over time, it is easy to establish the chronological order of architectural structures.
Opus mixtum
Although brick was usually used uniformly (opus testaceum), there are examples of it being used with other stones and courses of other masonry, creating an opus mixtum.
Stonework of Ancient Rome: opus latericium, opus inchertum, opus mixtum Architecture and city planning (urban planning)
Here are two different examples -
- the city of Rome itself, which is unique in its development,
- and the construction of new cities.
The layout of most ancient Roman cities was rectangular, based on the principle of temporary legionnaire camps - castrum.
City layout of Ancient Rome Namely, the settlements were divided and built along two main streets - cardo (oriented from north to south) and Decumanus (from east to west). The intersection of these streets was reserved for main square city - Foro.
Reconstruction of the layout of the city of Rimini Roads, water pipelines, sewers, and bridges were built in cities. Various buildings were built:
- residential houses (Domus, Insulae and Villas);
- for recreation (theatres, amphitheatres, circuses and baths);
- intended for the worship of gods (temples);
- for political and administrative activities (Curia and Basilica)
- and festive monuments (triumphal arches and columns).
Brief video review-reconstruction of the architecture of Ancient Rome:
